Classical Conditioning:

Behaviourists suggest that classical conditioning can be used to explain the development of abnormal behaviours such as phobias and taste aversions.

Watson and Rayner (1920) – classically conditioned ‘Little Albert’ to fear a rat by associating it with a scary loud noise.

Operant Conditioning:

Operant conditioning is learning through the consequences of an action (those that trigger positive/negative reinforcement are more likely to be repeated).

Examples of this in abnormality:

• Maintaining phobias – we can anxious around phobic stimuli, therefore seek to avoid them, this removes anxiety (negative reinforcement)
• Anorexics - desire to loose weight, so they do this by not eating (positive reinforcement as they are not putting on weight)
• Bulimics - feel guilt and disgust so make themselves sick (negative reinforcement as it removes these feelings)

Implications of the Behavioural Model for treatment:

Treatment involves further conditioning or observational learning designed to eliminate the maladaptive forms of behaviour that have been learnt. It offers plausible explanations for eating disorders and phobias, however it is heavily deterministic and suggests that we are passive victims of our environment rather than having free-will. This model also ignores biological and inherited factors.

Treatments Using Classical Conditioning:

Aversion Therapy:

This removes an undesired behaviour by associating it with unpleasant feelings. This has been found to be effective with smoking and drinking problems. For example, alcoholics are given alcohol at the same time as a drug that produces nausea. Nausea then becomes a conditioned response to alcohol. This procedure raises ethical issues as it can be distressing to patients.

Systematic Desensitisation:

The treatment is used to cure phobias. First the patient is asked to list a fear ‘hierarchy’ from their least feared situation, through to their most feared. They are then exposed to the least feared situation whilst being asked to do previously learnt relaxation techniques. Anxiety and relaxation cannot exist together, therefore the fear is lost. This procedure is continued up the list until the most feared situation. There are no ethical issues for this procedure as long as patients give their full content, although it does rely on a patients ability to imagine certain situation.

Covert Sensitisation:

Combines aversion therapy and systematic desensitisation. Participants are trained to punish themselves using their imaginations in certain situations. Has been found to be successful in controlling over eating, smoking and excessive drinking.

Implosion Therapy / flooding:

The common principal is that if the fear-evoking stimulus is repeatedly presented without the accompanying unpleasant experience, it will no longer elicit fear. During implosion therapy a person is repeatedly exposed to vivid mental images of the feared situation in a safe therapeutic environment. Flooding is when a person is forced to confront the object/situation head on.

Treatments Using Operant Conditioning:

extinction:

The behavioural model suggests that abnormal behaviours are often maintained by positive reinforcement, therefore therapists must be able to identify and eliminate the reinforcer that is maintaining the behaviour.

Positive Reinforcement – Token Economies:

Ayllon and Azrin (1968) developed a token economy system in which individuals were rewarded for socially desirable behaviours. Therapists first identify what patients like (i.e tv, cigarettes etc.) and when productive activities occur, tokens can be given which can be exchanged for rewards. For example, if an anorexics eats a certain amount of food they will be awarded with a token, which will encourage them to eat again next time. Patients may return to the community where social reinforcers must replace tokens if therapy is successful.

Positive Reinforcement – Behaviour shaping:

Involves rewarding successive approximations to a desired behaviour in order to build up to more complex behaviours. (This technique can be seen in programs such as ‘super nanny’ and ‘nanny 911’).

Punishment:

This involves punishing undesirable behaviours to reduce the chance of them being repeated. Punishment may only suppress behaviour temporarily, especially if a reinforcement-inducing behaviour is not substituted. There are ethical concerns with the use of punishment, especially with children.